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Multiplexed Analogue Components (MAC) was an analog television standard where luminance and chrominance components were transmitted separately.[1][2] This was an evolution from older color TV systems (such as PAL or SECAM) where there was interference between chrominance and luminance.
MAC was originally proposed in the 1980s[2] for use on a Europe-wide terrestrial HDTV system. Terrestrial transmission tests were conducted in France, although the system was never used for that purpose. Various variants were developed, collectively known as the "MAC/packet" family.[3]
In 1985 MAC was recommended for satellite and cable broadcasts by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), with specific variants for each medium. C-MAC/packet was intended for Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS), D-MAC/packet for wide-band cable, and D2-MAC/packet for both for DBS and narrow-band cable.[3][4][5]
History
[edit]MAC was originally developed by the Independent Broadcasting Authority[6][7] in the early 1980, as a system for delivering high quality pictures via direct broadcast satellites, that would be independent of European countries' choice of terrestrial colour-coding standard.[8]
In 1982,[6] MAC was adopted as the transmission format for the UK's forthcoming DBS television services,[7] eventually provided by British Satellite Broadcasting. The following year, MAC was adopted by the EBU as the standard for all DBS broadcasts.[3]
By 1986, despite there being two variants (D-MAC and D2-MAC) favoured by different countries, an EU Directive imposed MAC on the national DBS broadcasters. The justification was to provide a stepping stone from analogue formats (PAL and SECAM) the future HD and digital television, placing European TV manufacturers in a privileged position to provide the equipment required.
However, the Astra satellite system was also starting up at this time (the first satellite, Astra 1A, was launched in 1989), operating outside of the EU's MAC requirements, due to being a non-DBS satellite.[9][10]
Despite further pressure from the EU (including a Directive to make MAC compulsory in TV sets, and subsidies to broadcasters using MAC), most broadcasters outside of Scandinavia preferred the lower costs of PAL equipment, and the system had a limited adoption.[11]
In the 2000s, the use of D-MAC and D2-MAC ceased when satellite broadcasts changed to DVB-S format.[12]
Broadcast Variants
[edit]A number of broadcast variants exist, according to the way the digital signals are multiplexed with the MAC vision signal.[13]
- A-MAC was designed as a test-bed for the MAC concept. It was never used by any broadcaster, but eventually evolved into S-MAC.
- B-MAC was used in South Africa[14] by Multichoice, Australia[15] by Optus, the US by Primestar and American Forces Radio and Television Service. It was also used in parts of Asia until 2005, when it was replaced by digital compression.
- C-MAC required a bandwidth of about 22 MHz,[16] making it problematic for broadcasting. It could carry eight high quality (15 kHz bandwidth) sound channels.[17] It has a wide-screen backwardly compatible variant called E-MAC.[18]
- D-MAC was a UK standard used by British Satellite Broadcasting for satellite broadcasts, needing a bandwidth of approximately 10.5 MHz.[16] It could carry eight high quality (15 kHz bandwidth) sound channels[17] It was used in Norway by NRK, transmitting 3 radio channels and 1 TV channel at one D-MAC channel.[19][20]
- D2-MAC reduces the required bandwidth to 7.8 MHz, allowing the system to be used on cable and satellite broadcast.[16][4][5] It could carry four high quality (15 kHz bandwidth)[17] or eight lower quality audio channels.[16] It was adopted by Scandinavian, German and French satellite broadcasts (CNBC Europe, TV3 (Sweden), TV3 (Denmark), EuroSport, NRK 1, TV-Sat 2, TDF 1, TDF 2, etc.).[21][22][23][24][25][26][27] The system was used until July 2006 in Scandinavia and until the mid-1990s for German and French sound channels.[2]
- HD-MAC was an early high-definition television standard, allowing for 2048x1152 resolution.
Studio (non-broadcast) MAC variants
[edit]S-MAC or Studio MAC is a non-broadcast variant, used mostly in North America. The main advantages of this variant are:
- Processing NTSC component signals yields better results (a higher quality image) than manipulating NTSC directly – thus the need to create S-MAC.
- It is not possible to mix standard MAC signals in the studio environment because the R-Y and B-Y components are carried on alternate lines.
- S-MAC's SECAM like approach to bandwidth reduction is technical annoyance, but most studio users are not affected by it.
- In S-MAC the luminance is compressed by 2:1 and the two chrominance signals by 4:1 so that all three may occupy the same line.
- S-MAC's vision bandwidth is 11 MHz, only ~2.8x that of NTSC's vision bandwidth of 4.2 MHz.
- S-MAC can be carried on a single circuit and converted losslessly to and from C-MAC at any stage.
- S-MAC is well suited for SNG applications (AKA: news gathering trucks).
Technical overview
[edit]MAC transmits luminance and chrominance data separately in time[28] rather than separately in frequency (as other analog television formats do, such as composite video). This allows for full separation of the components. The signals are also time-compressed (with ratios of 3:2 for luminance and 3:1 for chrominance) and the two color difference signals are transmitted on alternate lines,[29][28] further increasing compression. The color space was YPbPr,[29] with a luminance component and red blue color difference chrominance components.
Audio and scrambling (selective access)
[edit]- Audio, in a format similar to NICAM was transmitted digitally rather than as an FM sub-carrier.
- The MAC standard included a standard scrambling system, EuroCrypt, a precursor to the standard DVB-CSA encryption system
Technical details
[edit]In MAC color is encoded using the YPbPr color space.[29] Luma () is derived from red, green, and blue () after gamma-correction (formula similar to PAL): [29]
Chrominance is computed based on and differences, generating two compressed and weighted color-difference signals know in older MAC references as and or and .[29] To avoid any confusion, and since the signals are analogue and bi-polar, these terms were replaced by and .[29] is transmitted on odd lines, while is transmitted on even lines.[16]
The signal range is between -0.5 and 0.5 volts while and signals vary between -0.65 to 0.65 volts.
The following table lists the main technical parameters of the various MAC variants:[29][30]
| B-MAC | B-MAC | C-MAC | D-MAC | D2-MAC | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Frame Frequency | 29.97 | 25 | |||
| Lines per frame | 525 | 625 | |||
| Aspect Ratio | 4:3 / 16:9 | ||||
| Display Gamma | 2.2 | 2.8 | |||
| Primary chromaticities (x y) | Similar to NTSC 1953: Red 0.67, 0.33; Green 0.21, 0.71; Blue 0.14, 0.08 | ||||
| White point (x y) | D65 | ||||
| Luminance | |||||
| Colour difference |
|
| |||
| Transmitted chrominance |
|
| |||
| Sampling frequency (MHz) | 14.318 | 14.219 | 13.500 | ||
| Uncompressed bandwidth (MHz) | 4.2 | 5.0 | 5.6 | ||
| Luminance clock periods | 750 | 696 | |||
| Chrominance clock periods | 375 | 348 | |||
MAC system innovations
[edit]Mathematical:
- A-MAC proved the mathematical principle that separating vision from colour for TV transmission was technologically viable.
Broadcast engineering:
- The MAC audio subsystem is very similar to NICAM, so much so that identical chip-sets are used.
- D-MAC satellite broadcasts provided the first broadcast sourced wide-screen television in Europe, and HD-MAC provided the first HDTV broadcasts, in 1992.
Technical challenges
[edit]Although the MAC technique is capable of superior video quality, (similar to the improvement of component video over composite in a DVD player), its major drawback was that this quality was only ever realized when the video signals being transmitted remained in component form from source to transmitter. If at any stage the video had to be handled in composite form, the necessary encoding/decoding processes would severely degrade the picture quality.
- Terrestrial TV broadcasters were never able to take full advantage of MAC image quality due to multiple interactions between their composite and component signal paths.
- Direct to Home and TVRO broadcasters were able to take advantage of MAC's improved image quality because their studios and routing facilities were far less complex.
- The success of NICAM audio for terrestrial television can be traced to the success of MAC technology. The MAC audio subsystem is nearly identical in design and function to NICAM.
Countries and territories that used MAC
[edit]This is a list of nations that used the MAC standard for television broadcasting:
Technological obsolescence
[edit]Since the vast majority of TV stations and similar installations were only wired for composite video, the fitting of a MAC transmitter at the end of the chain had the effect of degrading the transmitted image quality, rather than improving it.
For this and other technical reasons, MAC systems never really caught on with broadcasters. MAC transmission technology was made obsolete by the radically new digital systems (like DVB-T and ATSC) in the late 1990s.
See also
[edit]TV transmission systems:
- Analog high-definition television systems
- PAL, what MAC technology tried to replace
- SECAM, what MAC technology tried to replace
- DVB-S, MAC technology was replaced by this standard
- DVB-T, MAC technology was replaced by this standard
References
[edit]- ^ ITU Radiocommunication Assembly (1992). RECOMMENDATION ITU-R BO.650-2 - Standards for conventional television systems for satellite broadcasting in the channels defined by Appendix 30 of the Radio Regulations (PDF). p. 18.
- ^ a b c Government of Canada, Public Works and Government Services Canada (8 October 2009). "D2-MAC [1 record] - TERMIUM Plus? — Search - TERMIUM Plus?". www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca.
- ^ a b c Mertens, Henri; Wood, David (1 February 1986). "Standards proposed by the EBU for satellite broadcasting and cable distribution". Journal of the Institution of Electronic and Radio Engineers. 56 (2): 53–61. doi:10.1049/jiere.1986.0020 – via digital-library.theiet.org.
- ^ a b c Government of Canada, Public Works and Government Services Canada (8 October 2009). "D2-MAC [1 record] - TERMIUM Plus? — Search - TERMIUM Plus?". www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca.
- ^ a b "Glossary and acronyms". Europe's Information Society. 9 February 2006. Archived from the original on 9 February 2006. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
- ^ a b Robson, T.S. (19 September 1982). "Why IBA says MAC for Europe". Electronics and Power. 28 (9): 578–580. doi:10.1049/ep.1982.0302 – via IEEE Xplore.
- ^ a b c J.N., Slater (1991). Modern Television Systems : To HDTV and Beyond (PDF). p. 60. ISBN 0-203-26370-7.
- ^ "World Analogue Television Standards and Waveforms - Colour Standards". www.pembers.freeserve.co.uk. Archived from the original on 21 February 2014.
- ^ Kleinsteuber, Hans (2 November 2016). "New Media Technologies in Europe: the Politics of Satellite, HDTV and DAB". Irish Communication Review. 5 (1). doi:10.21427/D7FB12. ISSN 0791-0010.
- ^ Krieger, J?rn; Forrester, Chris (2011), Forrester, Chris (ed.), "07 Astra Cracks the German Market", High Above: The untold story of Astra, Europe's leading satellite company, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 100–107, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-12009-1_7, ISBN 978-3-642-12009-1, retrieved 19 March 2023
- ^ Pauchon, B. (1992). "Analogue HDTV In Europe - What are the key issues with analogue HDTV/EDTV systems ?" (PDF). EBU Technical Review. Autumn 1992: 7.
- ^ High Above Broadgate Publications (April, 2010).
- ^ Report 1074-1 - Satellite transmission of multiplexed analogue component (MAC) vision signals (PDF). ITU. 1990. p. 48.
- ^ Conradie, D.G. (19 June 1988). "The SABC's TV/radio satellite distribution system". COMSIG 88@m_Southern African Conference on Communications and Signal Processing. Proceedings. pp. 51–55. doi:10.1109/COMSIG.1988.49301. ISBN 0-87942-709-4. S2CID 131163463 – via IEEE Xplore.
- ^ "8.3 Multiplexed Analogue Components Transmissions". happy.emu.id.au.
- ^ a b c d e f Buiting, J. (1990). "Introduction to Duobinary Encoding and Decoding" (PDF). Elektor Electronics. January 1990: 50–52.
- ^ a b c RECOMMENDATION ITU-R BO.650-2 - Standards for conventional television systems for satellite broadcasting in the channels defined by Appendix 30 of the Radio Regulations (PDF). ITU. 1992. p. 5.
- ^ Pemberton, Alan (2024). "World Analogue Television Standards and Waveforms". BBCeng.info - Recollections of BBC engineering from 1922 to 1997. Retrieved 13 April 2025.
- ^ "Norwegian D/D2-MAC switched off". saturier.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 14 April 2025.
- ^ Forrester, Chris (2011), Forrester, Chris (ed.), "06 Europe's Dish and Box Wars", High Above: The untold story of Astra, Europe's leading satellite company, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 84–99, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-12009-1_6, ISBN 978-3-642-12009-1, retrieved 14 April 2025
- ^ "NORDIC SATELLITES : 5E - 1W". www.sat-net.com. 1998. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
- ^ "THE NORDEN SAT-TV FREQUENCIES". SAT-CODEZ. 1997. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
- ^ fu, mali (1 September 1989). "D2-Mac ist kein Luxus-Whopper". Die Tageszeitung: taz (in German). p. 20. ISSN 0931-9085. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
- ^ Vulser, Nicole; Marti, Régis (16 December 1991). "TVHD: l'Allemagne tentée de lacher la France sur le D2 MAC". Les Echos.
- ^ "Fast ein Geschenk". Der Spiegel (in German). 28 October 1990. ISSN 2195-1349. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
- ^ Fox, Barry (7 July 1990). "Technology: Europe's high-definition TV catches the match". New Scientist.
- ^ "List of Analog Satellite Channels". www.pcuf.fi. Retrieved 14 April 2025.
- ^ a b ITU (1990). Report 1074-1 Satellite transmission of multiplexed analogue component (MAC) vision signals (PDF).
- ^ a b c d e f g Slater, Jim (1991). Modern Television Systems to HDTV and beyond (PDF). pp. 62–65. ISBN 0-203-26370-7.
- ^ RECOMMENDATION ITU-R BO.650-2 - Standards for conventional television systems for satellite broadcasting in the channels defined by Appendix 30 of the Radio Regulations (PDF). ITU. 1992. p. 10.
- ^ Conradie, D.G. (19 June 1988). "The SABC's TV/radio satellite distribution system". COMSIG 88@m_Southern African Conference on Communications and Signal Processing. Proceedings. pp. 51–55. doi:10.1109/COMSIG.1988.49301. ISBN 0-87942-709-4. S2CID 131163463 – via IEEE Xplore.
- ^ "8.3 Multiplexed Analogue Components Transmissions". happy.emu.id.au.
- ^ Robson, T.S. (19 September 1982). "Why IBA says MAC for Europe". Electronics and Power. 28 (9): 578–580. doi:10.1049/ep.1982.0302 – via IEEE Xplore.
- ^ a b c Mertens, Henri; Wood, David (1 February 1986). "Standards proposed by the EBU for satellite broadcasting and cable distribution". Journal of the Institution of Electronic and Radio Engineers. 56 (2): 53–61. doi:10.1049/jiere.1986.0020 – via digital-library.theiet.org.
External links
[edit]- Multiplexed Analogue Components in "Analog TV Broadcast Systems" by Paul Schlyter
- IBA Engineering Announcement broadcast 3 February 1987 with more information on MAC